Benito Mussolini needed more than violence, intimidation, and “action” to rule. He also needed to justify his position. Like many dictators and politicians, he engaged in a highly sophisticated propaganda campaign designed to elevate his status. Mussolini wrapped himself in the Italian flag transforming himself into the living embodiment of the state. Propaganda infused itself into all aspects of Italian life as Mussolini became Il Duce and Italy marched toward a Second Roman Empire.
The postwar Italian economy sputtered along until Mussolini’s rise. Despite being an alleged “right wing” ideologue, Mussolini used government power to drive the economy. He drained marshes to create five new agricultural towns and 5,000 farms. Government subsidies and tariffs aided agriculture, industry, and those in debt. Additionally, draining the marshes put people to work in a New Deal-style work project. He compared these efforts to Roman public works projects and trumpeted the benefits for the newly employed workers and the farmland for peasants. Although the programs experienced marginal successes, and some failed, Mussolini's spin transformed them into amazing triumphs.
In addition to agriculture reform, Mussolini nationalized nearly ¾ of Italian businesses. In 1938, he instituted wage and price controls. Additionally, he forced citizens and businesses to surrender foreign assets such as stocks and bonds. Mussolini also required citizens to surrender their gold. Italians surrendered their jewelry to help the national economic effort. The dictator and citizens united in an effort to make Italy completely self sufficient and return the region to “Roman” control.
Mussolini used the media to publicize his policies and push his agenda. Italian media declared fascism as the philosophy of the future. Accordingly, fascism would replace liberalism, democracy, and communism. Propaganda became reality when the Italian economy turned around and Mussolini publicized public works projects and technological advances such as the flying boat. The dictator even got the trains running on time. Conversely, the western democracies remained mired in the depths of the Great Depression.
Il Duce expanded propaganda beyond the media and economic policy to control the populace. He targeted the education system for “reform.” School children were indoctrinated with patriotism and the need for courageous action. They needed to be brave for the state. Mussolini’s so-called “March on Rome” served as the example. According to myth, he and his black shirts risked life and limb marching on the capitol to seize power. His “decisive action” led to a revolution which “saved” Italy. Students were being trained to be modern Roman legionaries with Mussolini serving as emperor.
Like the Roman emperors, Mussolini created a cult of personality for Italians to worship. People came to associate the dictator with Italy. He glorified himself transforming his very image into a substitute for the Italian flag. He needed the cult to justify radical changes in societal structures. Revolutionary transformation has always been easier to achieve through secular worship and public adulation. Mussolini represented just one of many modern historical examples of a personality cult. His efforts inspired Hitler and others. Josef Stalin, Mao Zedong, Kim Il-Song, Kim Jong-Il, Juan Peron, Ayatollah Khomeini, and Barack Obama all used the personality cult to solidify power. However, Mussolini looked to the Caesars personality cults and imperial religions as his example. Nothing helped a Caesar's cult more than conquest.
Like the Caesars, Mussolini wished to strengthen his cult of personality and fascist propaganda through conquest. He shifted Italian foreign policy away from pacifism and toward aggressive expansionism. Mussolini wanted to create a new Roman Empire. In 1923, he bombed Corfu and watched in delight as the international community failed to act. Il Duce also established a puppet government in Albania and established Italian control over Libya. Mussolini went as far as establishing an Italian naval base on a Greek island. After all, the Mediterranean used to be a Roman lake.
The Italian leader’s actions represented small forays designed to test the international community and provide Italians with evidence of their greatness. In 1936, Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia in the first concrete attempt to reestablish the Roman Empire. Superior Italian military technology swept aside Ethiopian resistance and the army entered Addis Ababa. The League of Nations did nothing to stop the invasion nor evict Italy. After the conquest, Italy used poison gas to destroy resistance fighters. The Ethiopian campaign provided experience for the Italian troops. Mussolini looked for other opportunities to harden his troops.
The Spanish Civil War broke out the same year Italy invaded Ethiopia. Mussolini and German dictator Adolf Hitler both decided the conflict represented an opportunity to provide training to officers and soldiers. Both dictators sent aid to their fellow fascist Francisco Franco. The civil war brought Hitler and Mussolini closer as they shared similar goals. It also estranged Italy from France and Britain. Italy fought in the Spanish Civil War until Franco achieved victory. Mussolini’s forces fought for the victors and the dictator claimed the Italians helped provide the margin of victory. By 1939, the Roman Empire seemed to be on the verge of resurrection.
Benito Mussolini wanted to be Caesar, but settled for Il Duce. In addition to consolidating his power, he initiated an extensive propaganda campaign designed to merge his personage with Italy itself. He used economics, education, foreign policy, and a cult of personality to achieve this end. By the eve of World War II, Mussolini’s Italy appeared to be a success. While the western democracies struggled with the depression, Italy’s economy hummed, the country appeared to be on the rise, and Mussolini received the credit.
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