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The Revolutionary War
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The Revolutionary War broke out after twelve years of tension between the colonies and Great Britain. Originally, the war was over natural rights and taxation. As the years wore on, it became a global war of survival. As other powers entered the war, Britain had to defend its empire. The colonies political survival remained at stake throughout the war as the founding fathers battled Britain while keeping an eye on France. The war began in the north and eventually migrated south. At the same time, Britain battled France around the world and in the colonies. In the end, the global war weighed heavily on Great Britain and forced them to withdraw from America.
In April 1775, the British received word that the colonists were hoarding munitions at Concord, Massachusetts. They sent General Gage to seize and destroy the weapons. The colonists received word the British were marching toward Lexington and Concord. Paul Revere and William Dawes ran out into the night to wake the militia. The British met the awakened American Minutemen at Lexington. They ordered the Americans to disperse, but someone fired. The British opened up and then charged. Most Americans ran for their lives. The British continued their march toward Concord where they once again defeated the American militia and seized some weapons. The American Revolution was under way.
Britain believed they needed to win one big battle and the Americans would fold up their tents. In June, the British army moved on Boston. At Bunker Hill, the Americans inflicted heavy casualties on the enemy. The patriots retreated after running out of ammunition. Britain realized they had a real war on their hands. Around the same time, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.
Washington knew the Americans could not battle the British on the open field. They would have to wage a guerrilla campaign, avoid losing, and hold on long enough for the British to give up and go home. On the other hand, Britain waged a typical European campaign. They planned to seize colonial harbors and major cities. Plus, they planned to cut New England off from the other colonies. The English figured New England caused the bulk of the problems, so cutting them off from the other colonies would end the revolt.
Despite the American defensive strategy, a group of militia moved into Quebec and attempted to wrest Canada from the British. The invasion was under-funded, under-supplied, and under-manned. In November, the weather turned bad quickly. The soldiers ended up eating their dogs and soap. The invasion failed miserably after a half-hearted assault on British forces.
The invasion shocked congress. The revolutionaries were supposed to be simple farmers defending their land. Instead, they invaded Canada. The following summer, congress finally declared independence. However, it was an empty declaration as long as the American army continued to lose.
The war moved to New York in the summer of 1776. The British under General Howe obsessed over the rebel stronghold. Washington attempted to defend the city with 20,000 men. After a series of battles, Howe believed the war over. He defeated Washington at Brooklyn Heights, Manhattan, and Harlem Heights. Howe expected surrender, but Washington withdrew and the war continued.
The revolution hit its nadir for Washington and the American cause in the winter of 1776. One year enlistments stood to expire by the end of the year. The army dwindled to less than 5000 men. In order to improve morale and regain the initiative, Washington struck at Trenton on the day after Christmas. He caught the enemy by surprise. Trenton was held by about 1000 Hessians. The Hessians were German mercenaries hired by the British crown. Afterward, Washington defeated Lord Cornwallis at Princeton. The twin victories heightened morale despite being minor victories.
Despite two annoying defeats, Britain decided to end the war in 1777. General Burgoyne launched an invasion from Quebec. He planned to march down from Canada and seize the Hudson River corridor. If successful, New England would have been cut off. The Americans harassed Burgoyne’s wagon train all the way into New York. It took three months to march the short distance because the rebels cut trees down in front of the British army the entire way. Burgoyne lost a couple of skirmishes and then ran into General Horatio Gates at Saratoga in September.
Gates battlefield management remained conservative throughout the Battle of Saratoga. His subordinate, Benedict Arnold, wished to press the British, but was relieved of duty by the cautious Gates. Arnold disregarded his orders and led American troops to victory. Arnold and Gates captured an entire British army in October. This marked the turning point. The American patriots were galvanized. Meanwhile, France decided to enter the war.
Despite the diplomatic and military victories, General Howe captured Philadelphia. After the French entry into the war, Howe was replaced by General Clinton. Clinton abandoned Philadelphia to reinforce New York City. He also changed British strategy. The American Revolution had evolved into a world war. Clinton decided to take the war to the south in order to break the stalemate.
The British southern strategy failed miserably. They believed southerners were more British and would rally to the crown. However, moving southward unleashed ethnic tensions and blood feuds. It gave ethnic groups a rationale and an opportunity to settle old scores. Meanwhile, Washington sent Nathaniel Greene south to drive Lord Cornwallis crazy. Greene led Cornwallis all through the south. Cornwallis won time and again. However, he did not destroy Greene’s army. Washington later sent the Marquis de Lafayette to aid Greene.
Despite capturing Charleston and winning a major victory at Camden, the British were no closer to winning the war. Cornwallis moved to Yorktown, Virginia for extraction. He could not capture Greene nor Lafayette. The French recognized a major opportunity. General Rochambeau convinced Washington to move to Virginia. Washington wanted to take New York City, but acquiesced and finally moved south. The French Navy defeated the British Navy at the Battle of the Chesapeake as Washington moved in on Cornwallis.The British army was trapped. Eventually, Cornwallis surrendered.
After losing another army to America, the British decided to give up. The war with France was far more important than America. The Caribbean sugar colonies proved more valuable than the troublesome American colonies. So, Britain moved to end hostilities with America, concentrate on France, and save their other possessions. The Americans had to wait for the shooting between the super powers to end before finalizing the peace. Britain finally beat the French and the Peace of Paris officially ended the American Revolution almost two years after Yorktown on September 3, 1783.
George Washington wanted to wage a conventional war, but adapted to what America provided. He attempted to avoid a straight up battle whenever possible in order to keep the army together. Despite losing more than he won, Washington’s strategy paid off. The British called him “the Fox” because they could not capture him. Additionally, British strategy failed to adapt to Washington. They believed capturing major cities and ports would end the war as it would in Europe. However, a small minority of Americans lived in the cities and the American coastline possessed so many natural ports, that the strategy made little sense. They wasted time capturing cities and ports and chasing the Americans around the continent. This, combined with fears over the French, won American Independence.
